BASIC LECTURE NOTE ON RESEARCH METHODS

PROFESSOR BEN ONYEUKWU (REV.)

NCE, (ENG.) ND/HD (JOURNALISM), DIP; BA, (THEOLOGY), MA, PhD

BASIC LECTURE NOTE ON RESEARCH METHODS

INTRODUCTION/ DEFINITION:

          Research, in the words of Obiomah  and Nwulu (2002:1), “is a systematic investigation for the purpose of gaining new knowledge”.  According to Chukwudire (2005:1) “research is a systematic process of finding out an answer to a critical question, a burning issue; or  searching for the solution to a problem that engages the interest and attention of a researcher”. From the definitions above, one discovers  that research  aims at problem solving.

1:1    What Is Problem?

          As a concept Chukwudire (2005:1) further remarks that “ a problem is any obstacle or hindrance which causes worry and tends to prevent a person from realizing his/her desired goal(s) in life or in a particular field of human endeavour. He also opines that, “social systems, institutions and organizations,  have their unique problems which could be investigated to proffer solution, as well as, cites that, each field of human activity, discipline or learning has its peculiar problems, and that these problems need to be removed completely or at least be minimized in order to ensure success and progress in any field of learning, for individuals, the system and  society at large. Having clarified the above;

1:2    What  then is Research Problem?

          Chukwudire, equally notes that “a research problem is any problem, issues or puzzle that engages the attention of a researcher. In line with the foregoing, Chukwudire, therefore hints that, “a problem for research may be a real problem which most people recognize to exist”, for example, “false prophesy in today’s Church” etc. Having said this, let it be noted that, every effort towards finding a solution to a research problem must be objective and systematic. In other words, a researcher  must not allow his/her personal opinions or subjective impressions to influence his/her sense of duty during research, but must be open to the works of others, as well as be willing to accept the truth wherever it may be found. The researcher, as cited above, must equally be systematic in his/her research efforts, that is, he/her must learn to arrange his/her works or findings in an orderly manner, if he/she must achieve a dependable knowledge.

FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH

          According to Obiomah and Nwulu (2002:1) research is a means to;

1.      Answer man’s questions about life and aspects of human living
2.      Extend the boundaries of human knowledge of himself and his        society

3.      Seek to verify or clarify doubts about different areas of   academic endeavour

4.      Help to improve the quality of human life

5       Create a good social order

6.      Expose other avenues for more research.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

          According to Chukwudire (2005:10), “researchers generally agree that there is no fixed  system of classifying research into types” as he notes that, “one obvious fact, however, is that every research undertaking begins with a statement  of problem and ends with suggestions on how to solve the problem”.  In other words, every research obeys some definite rules. Chukwudire, further remarks that, “problems have various characteristics or features which inform or determine the methods that can be adopted to conduct an appropriate research. From Chukwudire’s view, as cited above, one deduces that;

i.             Every research problem has a unique nature

ii.            The nature of a research problem determines the methods  to be used in the research

iii.            There  is no stereotype solution to a research problem

iv.          There are always some definite rules (convention) in solving research problems

Having  given a brief analysis of the characteristics of research problems, and how to arrive at solutions, it becomes proper to list three out of what Obiomah and Nwulu (2002:3-4) call types of research.

1.  EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

This type of research deals with scientific or socially manipulated experiments. It involves the measurement of variables or concepts. It works according to the principles that there must be an independent variable, which is manipulated. All other variables are held constant. Then, observation is made of the effect of the independent variable on the dependent. These tests, observations and experiments necessitate the use of laboratory. Results and conclusions rely heavily on observation, while references are also made to other previous reports and research carried out in the same area.

Basic concepts that associate with Experimental Research                

Chukwudire (2005:17) lists and explains the following concepts as those which relate to experimental research.

i.             Variable: This is a changeable phenomenon, e.g age, income, beauty and level of education

ii.            Dependent Variable: This is the issue at stake or problem under investigation.

iii.           Independent Variable: This is a causative factor that may: lead to a problem or the independent variable.

iv.          Control Group:  This is the participant group in a research whose condition or status quo is not altered by the events of the research.

v.           Experimental Group: This is the group that is manipulated to observe the resultant effects of the manipulation or treatment

An experimental research is the type of research carried out under strictly controlled conditions, such as in a laboratory setting, a special classroom or work situation. It is also known as scientific research, and falls under what is referred to as applied research.

2.  HISTORICAL RESEARCH

This is the type of research that requires a thorough investigation of the historical records of a particular phenomenon. It also seeks to substantiate some claims through the analysis of historical facts and records. It uncovers origins, developments, attendant problems of a particular phenomenon that is being studied. This type of research relies on historical records which may include books, periodicals, auto-biographies, newspapers and magazines, diaries and other history books.

Characteristics of the Historical Research

     In the words of Chukwudire (2005:15-16), Historical Research has peculiar features or characteristics, which include the following:

i    Data are obtainable from both primary  (eye-witness account of       past events) and secondary (information obtained from books newspapers etc.) sources.

ii   Information is often obtained from observation and records of          people who took active part in a historical event rather than from the involvement of the researcher himself/herself

iii.           For a Historical Research  to be  reliable and authentic, there should be careful analysis of the various sources of materials. This helps to  sift the fact and reduce elements of bias and/or exaggerations

iv.          Historical Research process should be systematic and  rigorous while actual collection of information should be exhaustive and comprehensive.

3.  DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

     This type of research is designed to obtain information concerning the current state of a phenomenon. It carries out in-depth study that is directed towards determining the nature of a situation, as it is at the time of study. Its aim is to describe what exits with respect to variables of conditions in a given situation. Descriptive Research could be carried out on many areas of study  and proves to be both informative and educative. Sources of information could be on-the-spot observation of phenomenon and available data and records.

According to Chukwudire (2005:19), a descriptive research seeks to find out; 

i.             The characteristics of a large population of variables, using its small sample size as a basis,

ii.            Detailed information about  typical cases

iii.           Developing trends in a system

iv.          Conditions or relationships that exist between two or more variables and

v.           Facts about event that had taken place

Classification of Descriptive Research           

     Chukwudire(2005:20), also, opines that Descriptive Research may be categorized into the following five classes;

i    Survey Research

ii.  Case Studies

iii  Developmental Research

iv  Co relational Research

v.  Ex-post-facto research (post mortem)

a.  Survey Research

     Kerlinger (1973) in Chukwudire (2005:20) defines “Survey Research as the type of research which studies samples from populations (or universe)  to discover frequency of occurrence, distribution and interrelations of psychological and sociological variables”. By this definition, Chukwudire (2005:21) remarks that, “a Survey Research aims at gathering information about variables (such as opinions, feelings or attitudes of peoples about some events) rather than gathering information about individuals.

Characteristics of a Survey

Chukwudire also, lists the following as the characteristics of a survey:

1.   A survey is very relevant in the study of a large population of variables as is the case in social sciences

2.   Since a research population in social sciences is usually large, a survey study is imperative and should logically rely on samples of the population for effective handling

3.   Surveys mostly study variables that cannot lend themselves easily to direct observation of effective behaviours like opinion, feeling and attitudes.

4.   Survey Research was developed initially by psychologists and sociologists, but the methods were subsequently adopted by other social scientists, including political scientists and economists.

5.   The  characteristics of a population are inferred from the sample drawn from that population

6.   For a Survey Research, random samples are recommended, because they have been proved to provide as much useful information as a whole population or universe ….

7.   Surveys make elaborated use of interview and questionnaires as instruments for data collection

8.   For any conclusions based on a sample study to be reliable and used to infer population characteristics,  the sample size has to be relatively sizeable and possess all the essential factures/ characteristics of the population.

Types of Survey

    Kerlinger (1973) in Chukwudire (2005:22) further presents five types of survey as follows:

i    Personal Interview (Face-to-face encounter)

ii   Panel Technique

iii. Telephone Survey

vi Mail Questionnaire (which is self administered), and

v Case Study

Personal Interview

     Personal Interview is a face-to-face encounter between the interviewer and the interviewee. It  is regarded as the principal and most reliable method of gathering information about people in a social science research. It has peculiar features, as well as associated merits and demerits.

Panel Technique

A panel, in this context, is a group of people chosen for a research purpose. In this method, a sample of respondents is selected and interviewed; then re-interviewed and studied at later times. The panel technique enables the researcher to study changes in the behaviour and attitude of the participants.

Telephone Survey

     This method uses the telephone service to reach the participants. The telephone survey has the advantage of speed in interpersonal communication and low cost. It can sometimes be useful in obtaining preliminary information essential to a more comprehensive or in-depth study. Telephone survey is found very useful in advanced or technologically developed societies where the telecommunication system is efficient and relatively cheap.

     The principal defect of the system obviously, is its inability to yield detailed information. Some respondents are likely to be unco-operative and reluctant to answer more than simple, superficial questions particularly if the telephone interviewer is unknown to them.

Mail Questionnaire

     In the Mail Questionnaire method, respondents are reached through mail. This technique which is relatively  popular in education, is best used in conjunction with other techniques. However, it has two major defects which are;

i.             Possible lack of adequate response. Mail responses are generally poor; resulting in not more than 60 percent return.

ii.             Inability of the researcher to check the responses given by the respondents as they are not physically available

Case study              

          According to Chukwudire  (2005:25), “a case study is the type of research, which singles out an individual, group of individuals, institution or community for intensive investigation’. The investigation looks into the background of the object of study, its past and present circumstances, in great detail. The circumstances of a sample unit or individual may include parentage, education, professional training, social, economic, political and other essential environmental considerations.

Characteristics of Case Studies

1.           A case study engages in detailed or in-depth investigation of a person, small group of persons, or an institution. It studies the individual or group in its entirety

2.           As case studies examine single subject or small number units, maximum attention is paid to many variables and circumstances of the subject.

3.           The detailed information which case studies yield, in turn, become veritable background information which could be useful in planning more complex or multi-variable  types of research in education and social sciences

Examples of Topics of Case Studies

i    The effects of False Prophecy in the Church. A case study of          Pentecostal Churches in Ogwa

ii   Problem of poor welfare packages for Gospel  Preachers. The         case of Assemblies  of God, Nwaorieubi

iii  The menace of cultural influence on the work of God in Orodo         Christian Church

c.   Developmental  Research

Chukwudire (2005:27), also stresses that Development Research is a third example of descriptive research based on form. This type of research is conducted to investigate issues like patterns and sequence of growth or changes that take place as a function of time. Such studies are common in child psychology and business studies. Furthermore, it seeks to find out how some variables or characteristics of a given population change with time. Studies in this category are common in biological sciences. Examples of such studies could be determining genetic traits of some organisms over time.

d.  Correlational   research

Correlation implies that two things have relationship or a measure of closeness which causes them to associate or go together. A correlational study, according to Chukwudire (2005:30), is the type concerned with measuring the degree of relationship or association between two or more variables that tend to go together. In the words of Obodoeze (1996:11), “Co relational  Research involves establishing the extent of relationship between two variables or among three or more variables. Usually co relational studies are undertaken so as to ascertain how far scores or frequencies of observation on two or more than two variables go together in some trend or are interdependent. In furtherance, Obodoeze opines that “Co relational studies are used to establish cause and effects of relationships”, as he notes that “examples of Co relational research include the following

i.             Relationship between parents’ socio-economic status and student’s choice of careers

ii.            Wealth as predictors of success in politics

iii.            Knowledge of mathematics and achievement in physics

iv.          Managers traits and their drive in work situations

e.      Ex-post-facto research

          Ex-post-facto Research, as Chukwudire (2005:31) as well puts out, “is the type of research which is interested in the analysis of past events or already existing condition with a view to finding out the factors that are associated with certain occurrences, outcomes or specific types of behaviour”. According to Obodoeze (1996:18), “this type of research could be regarded as causal comparative research, as Ogomaka (1992) in Obodoeze (1996:18) says, “it involves finding out the effect of past factors on what happens afterwards”. This entails determining  if an event that took place in the past or a factor that was present in the past, has any effect on a variable at the present or at the time of the research. In other words, Ex-post-facto Research, as Obodoeze moves on to say, “implies an investigation to ascertain whether and to what extent a factor to which a group was exposed to, in the past, makes the same group different from other groups which have every other thing in common with the group with exception of being exposed to the factor at the time of the study”, as he equally gives examples of Ex-post-facto research topics as follows;

i         Exposure of children to war-torn regions and the children’s      aggressive propensities

ii        Effect of kindergarten education on children’s achievement in          primary schools.

RESEARCH PROBLEM AND FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE SELECTION OF REASERCH TOPIC

          Obodoeze (1996:19) opines that, “every research begins with the scholar focusing his/her attention at identifying  a problem which the solution is considered to be useful  to his/her field  of study. He further remarks that, “the identification of a problem in one’s field of study which will form the topic is the first step in a research exercise”. In line with the foregoing, Chukwudire (2005:62) opines that, “once a problem area is identified for research, the problem has to be narrowed down to a researchable topic”. He notes further that, “certain factors can, and do actually influences a student’s choice or selection of a topic for research”. the influence, he says, could be either way, positive or negative. The factors include the following:

i         Interest: The problem area may be of special or particular       interest to a student and for that reason he/she chooses a topic   in that area.

ii        Curiosity: A topic should be so topical, original or unique in nature that it appeal specially to a curious, motivated student.

In continuation, Obodoeze (1996:22) renders that;

iii.      The topic must be researchable:, as he notes that “many problems are of a philosophical nature, which can be discussed, but not to the point where objective evidence can provide a solution. This, he says, the problem, “should women be ordained priest? as stated, is a philosophical issue, and not subject to scientific determination.

iv.      The topic should relate to the researcher’s area of study

v.       The topic should be one that would make contribution to learning and improvement of the society     

vi.      The study should be accomplishable within the resources available to the student or researcher, etc.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESES 

1       Research Questions

Chukwudire (2005:67) remarks that, “after stating or        defining a research problem and reviewing some literature, the next logical thing to do is to pose some question(s) which the          answers are likely to lead to solving the research problem”. Research questions are, therefore, those questions that address aspects of the research problem….

                   A research problem could be stated in a question or       statement form. Research questions usually break down a              research problem into verifiable segments, Chukwudire        concludes

2.      Research Hypothesis

                   Chukwudire (2005:68), also, states that, “a hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research question. It is also called an intelligent or educated guess of an answer to the problem  of the research under investigation. Research questions could easily be converted into hypothesis to be tested.

          A hypothesis simply expresses what the researcher thinks could be the answer to an aspect of the research problem.

However, as a general rule, Chukwudire notes further that, at the end of the investigation, a hypothesis may or may not be supported by research findings.

Whether or not the hypothesis is supported by research evidence, it has done its job of providing a starting point for the investigation and directing or guiding the investigation. Hypotheses ensure that the research does not deviate from the stated purpose of the study.

          Having cited the above, Nightingale  (201:4-5), gives good examples of what research questions and research hypotheses are;

Research Question:

i         Does the portrayal of celebrities as role models influence youth       behaviour in the society?

          Research Hypothesis

i.             Portrayal of celebrities as role models influences youth       behaviour in the society

ii.            Portrayal of celebrities as role models does not influence youth behaviour in society..

          Research Question

Is celebrities influence the cause of all social vices on the campus?

Research Hypothesis

i         Celebrities influence on youth is the cause of the social and   campus vices

ii        Celebrities influence on youth is not the cause of the social and       campus vices.

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

          A research proposal is a précised or brief plan of the work of a researcher. In the words of Obodoeze (1996:25), “a research proposal is an overview or a gist of what you want to study and how you are going to embark on it”. Chukwudire (2005:141), cites that “a research proposal embodies that first three chapters of the main body of a research report” ….which Obodoeze (1996:25) outlines as follows:

CHAPTER 1

a.           Background of the study: here, there is usually a discussion of the major ideas or comments expressed or made by the writer(s) about the problem

b.           Statement of the problem: The researcher at this point introduces the problem, including the apprehensions expressed by observers or writers about the problem.

c.           Purpose of the study: This includes what the study is all about in general terms, that is, the objective, the aim, the target of the study….

d.           Significance of the study: This simply means what the society is likely to benefit from the successful completion of the research work …

e.           Scope of the study: Here, the researcher sets the limits of his work. If the problem is general or broad, the researcher can narrow it down or delimit it

f.             Research Questions and Hypotheses: Research studies are guided by research questions. And, as a rule, hypotheses are generated in attempts to answer research questions.

CHAPTER 2   

a   Literature Review: This should form a full chapter. “Literature review”  or “Review of literature” or “Review of related literature is a careful survey of what is already known and documented about the problem.

CHAPTER 3

Research Methodology

a.   Design of the study: The candidate discusses the design of his study, whether, experimental, quasi- experimental or survey etc.

b.   Area of study: The area of the study is defined. Example, Njikoka Local Government Area of Anambra State.

c.   Population: The population is identified and described. Example. All Catholic Women in Onitsha Urban or all secondary school dropouts in Awka South Local Government Area.

d.   Sample and sampling technique:  Where applicable, sampling technique is explained. Example: purposive and simple random sampling techniques will be used in drawing the sample. Where the aim is to study the entire population, then, this section may not be necessary.

e.   Treatment procedure: Here, details of treatment procedure are written where applicable. Some survey studies may not have this component. It is usually common in experimental and quasi-experimental research works.

f.     Instrument for Data Collection: The  student here, explains how the data collecting instrument will be developed, validated and used in collecting relevant data for the study.

g.   Data Analysis Techniques: Here, an explanation of the data analysis technique should form part of the research proposal...

RESEARCH DESIGN AND GUIDE TO WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT      

 1.     Research Design:

          Research Design is a plan for a research project before data are collected and analyzed. According to Chukwudire (2005:72), “Research Design is a research plan which considers various dimensions of the research, including the research population, sample, and sampling techniques conditions under which the subjects or respondents would be studied, nature of the research, such as a survey, case study, etc. Research design, basically is a guideline which guides the researcher towards solving research problems. It defer/varies depending on the nature of the problem to be studied. It takes into consideration the limitation posed by time, money and availability of data, which are important factors in determining a research design, as such plans are expected to be systematic and scientific in nature.

Ways of formulating Research Design

          Here, the researcher is expected to provide answers to the following questions

a.           What/who will form the population to be studied?  By this, we mean that the researcher must identify or determine his/her population size before going into the study.

b.           Is it every member of this population that would be studied? This is usually determined by population size. It is also influenced by time and money

c.           Is/are the population(s) going to be studied in their natural stage or under some stimulated experience?

d.           Which variables are going to be experimented on, and which variable are going to be under control?

The nature of the study      

          In the words of Chukwudire (2005:72) “under research design or plan, the researcher determines the nature of the research, such as whether it should be a survey, a case study, an experimental study etc. The nature of the study determines other variables like population sample…..and methods of data analysis.

Population:

          In research, the population is not just the number of people. It is used in a broader sense to include not just people but, also events, objects, animals, items etc who/which are members of the target of the study as defined by the aims and objectives of the researcher. According to Obodoeze (1996:6), “one of the earliest tasks of a  researcher is the definition  of his/her study population” as he, as well notes that “a population in research refers to animate or inanimate things on which the study is focused”. He equally outlines that, “a population could be a class, school libraries, towns, local government areas, states, nations or persons.

Samples

          Obodoeze, also, notes that, “a part or section of a population is referred to as a sample. In some research the entire population of let”s say people, institutions and things are studied, while in some research only a representative sample is studied.

Methods of sample selection

The following are some methods of selecting a sample size:

a.           Random sampling

b.           Systematic  sampling

c.           Stratified sampling

d.           Area or cluster sampling

Random sampling:

          This is a method of selection which guarantees an equal distribution/selection of the sample. By this, we mean that every number of the population has equal chance of being selected. For example, suppose one wants to choose a sample of ten students out of a hundred students from a school, the procedure should be one student out of every ten students. This could  be done by writing “No” and “Yes” in folded papers for the students to pick. To this end, any student who picks the paper written “Yes” stands the chance of being selected.

Systematic sampling

          This is a sampling technique which is otherwise called interval selection method. It is a method of selecting at fixed interval (s) from a population arranged severally in an alphabetical or systematic order. For example, a population of one thousand students where one hundred students are to be selected. This system could be fixed at every tenth number, which is a row line or column, etc. This suggests that every number that has the number “ten” in the row stands the chance of being selected.

Stratified sampling technique

          This is a sampling technique whereby the researcher divides the entire population into strata or sub-groups. After this division, the researcher then uses random sampling method in selecting stratum. The method of division could be sex, age, status, religion, etc.

Area of cluster sampling

          This method is used for a vast or wide spread population. This population is based on geographical disposition. The cluster is first divided into sampling units, e.g. wards, local governments, states and the entire nation. Each cluster would be closely together and share similar characteristics from the cluster, then a random sampling would be made which enables any member of the cluster to be selected or not.

2  Writing a Research Report

A research report is a format for presenting a research work. There are varieties of formats in research report presentation. However, the American Psychological Association (APA) style or format, according to Chukwudire (2005:98) is universally acknowledged as a standard format and undergoes regular review.           

Chukwudire, also, notes that the APA style prescribes five chapters and some relevant supplements for a research report. The chapters in broad outline are:

Chapter 1  -        Introduction

Chapter 2  -        Literature Review

Chapter 3  -        Research Methodology

Chapter 4  -        Analysis of data and results

Chapter 5  -        Interpretation and discussion of results

The supplements are References (not bibliography) and appendix  (plural appendices)

          Chukwudire (2005:99) further states that, the APA style of research report work is in two sections, namely the preliminary and main sections, which some are hereby listed.

THE PRELIMINARY SECTION OF A RESEARCH REPORT

a.      The cover

          A bound copy of a research report is usually in a hard cover. The colour may be black, blue, green, etc. as prescribed by a specific institution/faculty.

b.      Title (page)

          This first page, contains

1.      The title of the research work or topic

2.      The author’s or researcher’s full names (and may be with           matriculation/Registration number, in the case of a student in a        tertiary institution)

3.      Department and faculty (school or college) where the report is          to be submitted.

4.      The relation of the research to a course or degree requirement        (in partial fulfillment….)

5.      Year of presenting the research report to the institution.

Worthy of note is that the title (page) is typed in capital letters, single line spaced and centered between the right and left margins of the page.

A Specimen

THE EFFECT OF POOR WELFARE PACKAGE

OF GOSPEL MINISTERS IN NIGERIA

A  CASE STUDY OF MBAITOLI PASTORS

BY

ONYEUKWU JOY BEN

A RESEACH PROJECT PRESENTED

TO THE DEPARTMENT OF THEOLOGY

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR

OF THEOLOGY DEGREE  IN PASTORAL COUNSELLING

CROWN UNVERSITY

(SCHOOL OF BIBILCAL STUDIES)

JUNE, 2014

c.       Approval (page) or Certification (page)

          Chukwudire (2005:101), equally cites that the next page following  the title page is the approval page. He notes, as well that in this page, some key person(s) certify that the research was actually carried out by the author or researcher under guideline specified by the institution and moderated by the supervisor(s). The signatories certify that the contents, quality and presentation of the research report are satisfactory.

          According to Chukwudire, “the key persons expected to append their signatures on the certification page include:

-              The researcher’s supervisor(s)

-              The head of the department in which the research project is based

-              The dean of the school (faculty or college) in which the department is based and

-              an external examiner (if any)

The standard format or a approved schedule is as follows:

This is to certify that the Research Project Thesis/Dissertation was carried out by Joy Ben Onyeukwu of the department of theology, Crown University, Nigeria, and that the quality and  presentation of the report are satisfactory.

Name                                      signature                                Date 

____________________    ________________   _____________

Supervisor’s Name

                                                

____________________    ________________   _____________

Head of Department

        

 ____________________   ________________   _____________

Dean of school

____________________   

External Examiner                ________________   _____________

d.      Dedication (page)

                   According to Obodoeze (1996:112), the statement in the         dedication page should be short. Example: the project is         dedicated to my beloved mother Mrs. Beatrice Enwereama

e.      Acknowledgement:

                   Here, the researcher registers his/her gratitude to all who         contributed to the overall success of the research endeavour….

f.       Abstract or synopsis

                   This is usually the outline or summary of the major          features of          the study. The abstract is usually not more than two     hundred  words.

g.      Table of contents

                   This is normally a list of all the chapters

 that constitute the entire study in the order in which they have been written.

THE MAIN BODY OF A RESEARCH REPORT

          Chukwudire (2005:104), further remarks that the main body of a research report is the entire research. In this section, the research activities of the researcher in respect of each chapter and subsidiary section are outlined. Based on the foregoing, Obodoeze (1996:113, gives brief explanations of the main body of a research report.

CHAPTER ONE-INTRODUCTION

1:1    Background of the study

          Here, the observation, experience, etc that caught the interest          that raised questions in the mind of the researcher that gave rise to the study are stressed.

1:2    Statement of the problem

          This is where the researcher states what exactly is the problem       he/she is trying to solve.

1:3    Purpose of the study

          At this point, the researcher is expected to state the general    goals of the study

1:4    significance of the study

          Here, the researcher states the benefits of the study if    successfully carried out

1:5    Research Questions

Research questions are the sub-sets of the purpose of a study which the researcher converts into questions

1:6    Research Hypothesis

This is researcher’s mental guess on how to solve research problem. As a rule, it is the research questions that are reframed into research hypothesis

1:7    Scope of the Study (or Delimitation)

          This is narrowing down the study to a manageable size

CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature Review usually form a whole of the chapter. This is where the researcher brings to focus previous studies conducted in the very problem area and other related materials.

CHAPTER THREE – METHODOLOGY

3:1    Area of study

          Here, the researcher indicates the geographical area, e.g. Mbaitoli            L.G.A, Crown University, etc. where the study was conducted.

3:2    Design of the study

This is the point where the researcher drops the hint on the type      of research employed in realizing the fundamental objectives of        his/her study, whether it is descriptive or survey, etc.

3:3    Population of the study

The population of a study refers to all the people, events, objects, etc.  involved in the study

3:4    Sample and sampling technique

Here, the researcher states his/her sample, which is the population of the study, as well as states the technique by which he/she had chosen a portion of the population for his/her study.

3:5    Instrument for data collection

This is the point, where the researcher states the instrument used for data collection e.g. questionnaire etc

3:6    Administration of the instrument

Here, the researcher visits the area chosen as sample for his/her study, with the help of research assistants administers his/her research instrument (e.g. questionnaire) to avoid mistakes.

3:7    Method of data analysis

At this point, the researcher scores the responses or the results of the instrument of his/her study.

CHAPTER FOUR-ANALYSIS OF DATA AND RESULTS

This chapter, may or may not begin with a brief introduction of what the reader is likely to read about in the chapter. However, the most essential thing about the chapter four of a research work is to present the analysis of data, usually arranged in tables or graphs.(see chapter four of some written projects)

CHAPTER FIVE- DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

5:1    Discussion of findings

According to Chukwudire(2005:130),the researcher at this point should do the following:

i         Re-state the Research Questions and/or hypotheses which had appeared earlier in chapter 1 and 3 respectively. Chukwudire further states the guiding pillars in the discussion that should as well follow.

ii        try to provide answer to the research questions by turning to the relevant tables (in chapter 4) where the analyzed  data had been presented…

iii       Give reason(s)to explain the findings/results…

iv       In giving such explanations, the researcher may find that the reasons for the differences or similarities in the findings were due to differences, for instance, in the environment, participants/subjects, or instruments used to collect data for the present study

v        Cite or make references to previous, but related studies with findings similar or dissimilar to the result of the present study.

5:2    Conclusion

          At this point, based on the analysis of data collected for the research and the findings obtained, the researcher should present in a comprehensive form the conclusion of the study

5:3    Recommendations

          Here, the researcher is expected to present both practical and theoretical recommendations that follows directly from the findings of the study

5:4    Implications of the study (eg. Educational or moral etc.) implication of the findings/study refers to the message or lesson from the study which calls for necessary actions by different interest groups or stakeholders

5:5    Suggestions for Further Studies

          Here, according to Chukwudire (2005:133) the researcher recommends to potential researchers some aspects of his/her study or result of his/her study, which can lead to further research by any interested researcher ….

5:6    Limitations of the study:

          Limitation of the study, which comes up under chapters 5 refers to short comings of the study, such as poor design of the study, inappropriate sample, poor return of questionnaire, poor instrument design, item ambiguity, etc. it includes various technical difficulties uncounted in the course of the study other than financial and time constraints.

5:7    Summary

          Here, Chukwudire (2005:134) says,, “it is recommended to end the research report with a brief account summary of the entire work. This is not the abstract which comes up before chapter 1 (Introduction)             

          The summary, Chukwudire, further notes should begin with a preamble re-stating the research problem, then the purpose of the study, methodology, findings, implications, limitation and suggestions for further studies.

For a better understanding of this lecture on Research Report, the student should do well to get a copy of a well written project, which he/she should inspect closely as he/she reads/studies the lesson.

DATA COLLECTION AND DOCUMENTATION

OF SOURCES OF RESEARCH INFORMATION

1.      Data Collection:

          According to Queen Otti (2007), “data are information, facts and observations in isolation, which relate to the topic/subject under study”. Research writing cannot be undertaken without data. This is because, it is the data that we collect and arrange that lead us to results, analysis, conclusions and suggestions for further investigation.

Instruments of data collection

          Otti further says that instruments of data collection, “are devices used in measuring or recording data”. These are at times referred to as Research instruments. Data collection comes after the selection of research topic and formulation of research questions/hypotheses. This is because, it is through the data so collected that the researcher will use to test the hypotheses so formulated. In other words, research writing cannot be carried out without data collection. We have the following as instruments for data collection.

a.           Questionnaire

b.           Interview

c.           Test

d.           Scale-rating

e.           Observation/documentary statistics

f.             Experiments etc.

a.      Questionnaire

          The questionnaire is a set of questions relating to the aims and objectives of a study which the respondents (sample) are  expected to answer by writing responses or opinions about the questions asked. A questionnaire is otherwise called a written interview.

Questionnaire as an instrument, is a good testing measure in terms of information collection, though it has its own limitations or disadvantages. It covers a wide area, and tests a large sample size. This questions are structured to incorporate the personal data and questions to be answered. According to Chukwudire (2005:84), questionnaire has the following merits and demerits

Merits.

i         Many respondents can be reached within a short time,                      even by mail

ii.       A variety of delivery systems could be employed to reach                           the respondents. They include, “drop and go,”  “post”,                     “wait and collect, etc.

Demerits

i         There can be faked responses, as respondents try to                        please the researcher

ii        Some of the delivery systems, such as, drop, go away                      and return to collect” and the post system do not ensure                           100% return of accurately completed questionnaire, etc.

b.      Interview

          Interview is an oral questionnaire. It is a face-to –face                        interaction situation in which the interviewer asks the                         interviewee questions orally. Interview as a research                           instrument  gives a very good result, if it is well                                        conducted. Time consumption and money are some of                        the limitations or disadvantages of interview

c.       Test

          This is also a research instrument used in data collection.                           It is an instrument used in collecting data, especially in                         schools to determine the learning ability of students. Test                           is of two types, namely;

i         Achievement test and

ii        Aptitude test

i         Achievement test

This is a test given at the end of an instruction to find out the learning ability of students or how much learning the learner has acquired. It is very helpful in determining the academic status of the student or testee. During the achievement test, examinations/questions based on what is taught are given, marked and scores collected .

ii        Aptitude Tests

These are tests which aim at finding out how much the learner can learn in future or how much he/she can think. It could be looked at as a predictive tests, which predicts an individual:’s capacity to acquires improved information/performance with additional training

d.      Rating Scale 

          This is a research instrument whereby the rater assigns attributes to the ratee, according to the rater’s observation/ experience about the ratee. It is a scale that indicates the degree to which each attribute is present in the object/ratee from the rater’s point of view. These rating attributes could be friendliness, neatness, reading ability, speech ability, science ability, lateness, responsibility, etc. The scoring could be between zero – 5, for the high depending on the rater. Zero for nil, one for very how, 2 for low, 3 for average, 4 for above average and 5 for excellent, as the case may be. The rating scale has its limitations and one of them is that it has subjective effect.

e.      Observation

          Observation is another research instrument used to obtain an individual’s behaviour, objects or situation. By direct observation, the researcher is able to see or get first hand information about the person(s) objects or situation, and so not much information is lost

f.       Experiment

          This is a research instrument that is based on scientific proof. It is a form of data collection whereby the researcher performs experiment on a burning issue, having the treatment and the control groups, which he/she collects the results of the experiment as a valid data/information, as a result of the experiment which he later uses in his/her analysis or generalization.

Sources of Data

Queen Otti (2007) also, remarks that “data can be generated from two main sources” namely;

a.           The primary source and

b.           The secondary source

a.      Primary source of Data

          The primary source of data has to do with eye-witness account, in the form of official records, such as file interview, minutes of meetings, individuals and picture, etc.

b.      Secondary source of Data

          The secondary source of data hinges on the accounts of events that were not actual witnessed by the reporter. To this end, the reporter will be reporting the information that is handed over to him/her by someone else. In line with this, Obodoeze (1996:59) lists what he calls “sources of published secondary information”, which he says are;

a.           Government Publications

b.           Magazines and Journals

c.           Professional Associations Publications

d.           Newspapers and Almanacs

e.           General Reference Books, e.g. Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, Directories ,  etc

f.             Monographs or textbooks

g.           Microfilm

h.           Magnetic tapes, computer memories and other information storage and retrieval systems.

2.  Documentation of sources of  research information

     According to Obiomah and Nwulu (2002:54) “many styles of documentation of sources exist, but the most widely used are the MLA (Modern languages Association) and the APA (American Psychological Association). Generally, the MLA style is used by scholars in the liberal arts or the humanities, while the APA system is used by those in the social sciences and science. However, in this course, we shall be giving attention to the APA style of documentation, which is referred to as referencing. In the words of Chukwudire (2005:135),  “the essence of referencing is to give credibility to one’s work and facilitate replication of the study, if need be. In this connection, Obiomah and Nwulu (2002:66), give the APA specimen reference as follows

Obechina, E.N. (1975) Culture, tradition

                   and Society in the West African novel

                   Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 

Obiomah, M.A. and Ton. – Duruaku, C (2000)

                   Communication in English (part three) Owerri

                    Cherry Bran publishers

Emenyonu, E. (1998). The rise of the Igbo novel

                   Ibadan: Oxford University press

Obiomah and Nwulu (2002:66-67) further note that in the APA style of referencing:

a.   The author’s name begins with the surname, followed by abbreviated letters for the first name and other names

b.   The first word of the title and subtitle and all proper nouns are capitalized. Others remain in small letters

c.   Author’s name begins at the margin, while subsequent lines following the first line are indented (as in paragraph form)

d.   The date of publication comes directly after the author’s name and is enclosed within parenthesis.

e.   The title of the book is underlined. Only the first word and other proper Nouns are capitalized

f.     The abbreviation ”p” and “pp”  for “page” and “pages” respectively, within parentheses should come before the page numbers of magazine and

g.   The place of publication is followed by a colon, after which comes the name of the publisher

h.   Names should be presented in alphabetical order.

In conclusion, this lecture note is an attempt by the compiler to instill in the freshmen to the course, the basic principles which would stir them into the actual writing of academic projects. However, since there are deliberate omissions of certain topics on the subject- matter, considering the level of the students or learners the work targets, it becomes advisable that additional helps be sought from books and other materials written by other professionals on the subject under review.

PUBLISHED 2014

REFERENCES

Chukwudire, , H. U. C. (2005), Basic Research Methodology in                                               Education and Social Science, Owerri, Ambix                                               Printers Nigeria.

Obodoeze, F.O. (1996), Modern Textbook of Research Methodology,                                    Enugu Academic Publishing Company

Obiomah, M.A. and Nwulu, V. C. (2002) Research Methodology (A                               step-By- Step Guide) Second edition, Port Harcourt,                           Zelon Enterprises

Onyeukwu, B. L. (2006), Conflict of the Western Education and                                               African Value in the Up-brining of the Nigerian                                     Child, Nsugbe, Unpublished

Onyeukwu, N. (2010), The Negative Effects of for portraying                                          celebrities as role Models Amongst Youth (A case                                       study of Federal Polytechnic, Nekede) Unpublished

 Otti, Q. (2007) Lecture Note on Research Methods, International                                  Institute of Journalism, Abuja (Owerri Campus),                                  Unpublished